Bilingualism and Multilingualism
The concept of bilingualism
as applied to individual children and to educational programs is discussed, and
the history of research on bilingual children and bilingual education programs
in the United States is reviewed. Bilingualism has been defined predominantly
in linguistic dimensions despite the fact that bilingualism is correlated with
a number of nonlinguistic social parameters. The linguistic handle has served
policymakers well in focusing on an educationally vulnerable population of
students, but the handle is inadequate as the single focus of educational
intervention. Future research will have to be directed toward a multifaceted
perspective of bilingualism as a phenomenon embedded in society. (PsycINFO
Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
Bilingualism
and Multilingualism
A. Bilingualism
1. Definition Bilingualism
according to Experts :
a. Sociolinguistics
In general, Bilingualism defined as the use of two languages by a speaker in
interaction with other people in turn
(Mackey
1962:12, Fishman 1975:73)
b. Bilingualism
is the ability to speak two languages with equal or nearly as good.
Technically, this opinion refers to the knowledge of two languages, how the
level by one.
(Robert Lado (1964-214)
c. Bilingualism
is an alternate use of two languages. Formulate bilingualism as a habit of
using two or more languages by an individual (the alternative use of two or
more languages by the same individual). Expansion of this opinion expressed by the level of bilingualism in terms of
mastery of grammatical elements, lexical, semantic, and style are reflected in
the four language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Mackey
(1956:155)
d. Bilingualism
is the usage of two languages by a speaker or speech community.
Hartman
and Stork (1972:27).
e. Bilingualism
is the ability to use two languages equally well by a speaker. Formulate
bilingualism as equally good mastery of two languages or native like control
of two languages. Mastery of two languages with fluency and accuracy are
the same as native speakers is very difficult to measure. Bloomfield (1958:56)
2 . The division of Bilingualism :
As
for some kind of division based on the typology Bilingualism, namely:
A. Compound
Bilingualism
Bilingualism indicating that the ability to speak one language better than another language proficiency. Bilingualism is based on the relation between the B1 to B2 is controlled by the bilingual. Both languages mastered by bilingual but stands on its own.
Bilingualism indicating that the ability to speak one language better than another language proficiency. Bilingualism is based on the relation between the B1 to B2 is controlled by the bilingual. Both languages mastered by bilingual but stands on its own.
B.
Bilingualism coordinative /
parallel.
Bilingualism
is shown that the use of two languages equally well by an individual.
Bilingualism balanced level of mastery associated with B1 and B2. People who
are equally capable in both languages.
C.
Bilingualism Sub-oordinatif
(complex)
Bilingualism
indicating that an individual at the time of wear often include B1 B2 or vice
versa. Bilingualism is connected with the situation faced by B1. Is a small
group that surrounded and dominated by a large community of a language is
possible so that small communities could lose his B1.
There are some other opinions by
experts in language typology Bilingualism include :
1. Baeten
Beardsmore (1985:22)
Baeten
adds one more degree of initial Bilingualism (inception Bilingualism)
Bilingualism is owned by an individual who is in the process of mastering B2.
2. According
to Pohl (in Baetens Beardmore, 1985; 5)
Language
typology based more on status of language that exist within society, then Pohl
Bilingualism divide into three types, namely :
a. Horizontal Bilingualism
Is a situation of using two different languages but each language has equal status both in formal situations, culture and family life of the wearer.
b.
Vertical Bilingualism
Is the use of language when the standard language and dialects, whether related or separate, is owned by a speaker.
Is the use of language when the standard language and dialects, whether related or separate, is owned by a speaker.
c. Diagonal Bilingualism
Is the use of two languages or non-standard dialects together but they have no genetic relationship with the standard language used by the community.
Type
bilingualism on language skills, so the Bilingualism classified into two namely
:
a.
Productive Bilingualism or symmetric (symmetrical Bilingualism), namely the use
of two languages by an individual against all aspects of language skills
(listening, speaking, reading, and writing)
b.
Receptive or passive or a simetrical Bilingualism is being able to understand
two languages but express oneself in only one. Children who had high expore to
asecond language thr4oughout their lives, but have had little oppurtunity to
use the language would fall in this category.
For
example, many children in Chinese or Mexican imigrant household hear English in
communication. When they enter pre school or kindergarten, his children are
likely to make rapid progress in English because their receptive language skill
in English has been developed.
B. Multilingualism
Multilingualism in the World
Contrary to what is often believed, most of the world's
population is bilingual or multilingual. Monolingualism
is characteristic only of a minority of the world's peoples. According to
figures cited in Stavenhagen (1990) for example, five to eight thousand
different ethnic groups reside in approximately 160 nation states. Moreover,
scholars estimate that there are over 5000 distinct languages spoken in that
same small number of nation states. What is evident from these figures is that
few nations are either monolingual or mono-ethnic. Each of the world's nations
has groups of individuals living within its borders who use other languages in
addition to the national language to function in their everyday lives.
Guadalupe Valdés
Multilingualism is the act of using, or promoting
the use of, multiple languages, either by an individual speaker
or by a community of speakers. Multilingual speakers
outnumber monolingual
speakers in the world's population. Multilingualism is
becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of globalization and
cultural openness. Thanks
to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals'
exposure to multiple languages is getting more and more frequent, and
triggering therefore the need to acquire more and more languages.
A
multilingual person, in a broad
definition, is one who can communicate in more than one language, be it
actively (through speaking, writing, or signing) or passively (through
listening, reading, or perceiving). More specifically, the terms bilingual
and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two
or three languages are involved. A multilingual person is generally referred to
as a polyglot.
Poly (Greek: πολύς) means "many", glot (Greek: γλώττα)
means "language".
Multilingual
speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood,
the so-called first
language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred
to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms
heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called
simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals one
language usually dominates over the other.
A
further possibility is that a child may become naturally trilingual by having a
mother and father with separate languages being brought up in a third language
environment. An example of this may be an English-speaking father married to a Mandarin Chinese
speaking mother with the family living in Hong Kong,
where the community language (and primary language of education) is Cantonese.
If the child goes to a Cantonese medium school from a young age, then trilingualism
will result.
1.
Definition of multilingualism
One group of academics
argues for the maximal definition which means speakers are as proficient
in one language as they are in others and have as much knowledge of and control
over one language as they have of the others. Another group of
academics argues for the minimal definition, based on use. Tourists who
successfully communicate phrases and ideas while not fluent in a language may
be seen as bilingual according to this group.
However, problems may arise with these definitions
as they do not specify how much knowledge of a language is required for a
person to be classified as bilingual. As a result, since most speakers do not
achieve the maximal ideal, language learners may come to be seen as deficient
and by extension, language teaching may come to be seen as a failure.
Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between
minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people multi-competent.
2.
Multilingualism at the linguistic
level
1. Models for native language literacy
programs
Sociopolitical as well as socio-cultural identity
arguments may influence native language literacy. While these two camps may
occupy much of the debate about which languages children will learn to read, a
greater emphasis on the linguistic aspects of the argument is appropriate. In
spite of the political turmoil precipitated by this debate, researchers
continue to espouse a linguistic basis for it. This rationale is based upon the
work of Jim Cummins (1983).
2. Sequential model
In this model, learners receive literacy instruction
in their native language until they acquire a "threshold" literacy
proficiency. Some researchers use age 3 as the age when a child has basic
communicative competence in L1 (Kessler, 1984).[18]
Children may go through a process of sequential acquisition if they migrate at
a youn`g age to a country where a different language is spoken, or if the child
exclusively speaks his or her heritage language at home until he/she is
immersed in a school setting where instruction is offered in a different
language.
The
phases children go through during sequential acquisition are less linear than
for simultaneous acquisition and can vary greatly among children. Sequential
acquisition is a more complex and lengthier process, although there is no
indication that non language-delayed children end up less proficient than
simultaneous bilinguals, so long as they receive adequate input in both
languages
3. Bilingual model
In this model, the native language and the community
language are simultaneously taught. The advantage is literacy in two languages
as the outcome. However, the teacher must be well-versed in both languages and
also in techniques for teaching a second language.
4. Coordinate model
This model posits that equal time should be spent in
separate instruction of the native language and of the community language. The
native language class, however, focuses on basic literacy while the community
language class focuses on listening and speaking skills. Being a bilingual does
not necessarily mean that one can speak, for example, English and French.
3.
Potential
multilingual speakers
- Natives under a state in which they do not share the predominant language, such as Welsh people within the United Kingdom.
- People with a strong interest in a foreign language.
- People who find it necessary to acquire a second language for practical purposes such as business, information gathering (Internet, mainly English) or entertainment (foreign language films, books or computer games).
- Language immersion children (or any adult who chooses to immerse in a foreign language).
- Immigrants and their descendants. Although the heritage language may be lost after one or two generations, particularly if the replacing language has greater opportunity.
- Children of expatriates. However, language loss of the L1 or L2 in younger children may be rapid when removed from a language community.
- Residents in border areas between two countries with different languages, where each language is seen as of equal prestige: efforts may be made by both language communities to acquire an L2. Yet, in areas where one language is more prestigious than the other, speakers of the less prestigious language may acquire the dominant language as an L2. In time, however, the different language communities may be reduced to one, as one language becomes extinct in that area.
- Children whose parents each speak a different language, in multilingual communities. In monolingual communities, when parents maintain a different-parent/different-language household, their children may become multilingual. On the other hand, in monolingual communities, where parents have different L1s, multilingualism in the child may be achieved when both parents maintain a one-language (not the community language) household.
- Children in language-rich communities where neither language is seen as more prestigious than the other and where interaction between people occurs in different languages on a frequent basis. An example of this would be the city of Montreal, Canada and some border towns in the Canadian Province of Québec.
- Children who have one or more parents who have learned a second language, either formally (in classes) or by living in the country. The parent chooses to speak only this second language to the child. One study suggests that during the teaching process, the parent also boosts his or her own language skills, learning to use the second language in new contexts as the child grows and develops linguistically.
- People who learn a different language for religious reasons. (see: Sacred language)
- People who marry into families where their first language is not commonly spoken.
Multilingualism
within communities
Further
information: List of multilingual countries and regions
This
is a multilingual sign at the Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Pier in the Macau Special Administrative Region of China.
The two at the top are Portuguese and Chinese, which are the official languages of the region. The two at the
bottom are Japanese
and English,
which are common languages used by tourists (English is also one of Hong Kong's
two official languages).
The
three-language (Tamil,
English
and Hindi) name board at the Tirusulam
railway station in South
India. Almost
all railway stations in India have signs like these in three or more languages
(English, Hindi and the local language).
Multilingual
signage at Vancouver International Airport, international arrivals area. Text
in English, French, and Chinese is a permanent feature of this sign, while the
right panel of the sign is a video screen that rotates through additional
languages.
Multilingual
signage found at one of the exit doors of SM Mall of Asia in Pasay City, Philippines. It is written in three (or either
four) languages: Japanese/Chinese (either "deguchi" or
"chukou"), English ("exit") and Korean ("chulgu"). Signages like
this are posted in public places like malls due to the growing number of Koreans and other foreign population in the Philippines.
Widespread
multilingualism is one form of language contact. Multilingualism was more common in
the past than is usually supposed[weasel words]: in early times, when most people
were members of small language communities, it was necessary to know two or
more languages for trade or any other dealings outside one's own town or
village, and this holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such
as Sub-Saharan Africa and India. Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates
that 50% of the population of Africa is multilingual.[16]
In
multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states
can have multilingual policies and recognise several official languages, such
as Canada (English and French). In some states, particular languages may be
associated with particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with
particular ethnicities (Malaysia/Singapore). When all speakers are
multilingual, linguists classify the community according to the functional
distribution of the languages involved:
- diglossia: if there is a structural functional distribution of the languages involved, the society is termed 'diglossic'. Typical diglossic areas are those areas in Europe where a regional language is used in informal, usually oral, contexts, while the state language is used in more formal situations. Frisia (with Frisian and German or Dutch) and Lusatia (with Sorbian and German) are well-known examples. Some writers limit diglossia to situations where the languages are closely related, and could be considered dialects of each other. This can also be observed in Scotland where in formal situations, English is used. However, in informal situations in many areas, Scots is the preferred language of choice.
- ambilingualism: a region is called ambilingual if this functional distribution is not observed. In a typical ambilingual area it is nearly impossible to predict which language will be used in a given setting. True ambilingualism is rare. Ambilingual tendencies can be found in small states with multiple heritages like Luxembourg, which has a combined Franco-Germanic heritage, or Malaysia and Singapore, which fuses the cultures of Malays, China, and India. Ambilingualism also can manifest in specific regions of larger states that have both a clearly dominant state language (be it de jure or de facto) and a protected minority language that is limited in terms of distribution of speakers within the country. This tendency is especially pronounced when, even though the local language is widely spoken, there is a reasonable assumption that all citizens speak the predominant state tongue (E.g., English in Quebec vs. Canada; Spanish in Catalonia vs. Spain). This phenomenon can also occur in border regions with many cross-border contacts.
bipart-lingualism: if more than one language can be
heard in a small area, but the large majority of speakers are monolinguals, who
have little contact with speakers from neighbouring ethnic groups, an area is
called 'bipart-lingual'. An example of this is the Balkans
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Agustina. 2004. Sosialinguistik Perkenalan Awal. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
Alwasilah, A. Chaedar. 1993.
Pengantar Sosiologi Bahasa. Bandung: Angkasa.
Ohoiwutun, Paul. 2004.
Sosialinguistik Memahami Bahasa Dalam Konteks Masyarakat dan kebudayaan.
Jakarta: Kesaint Blanc.
Bialystok, Ellen, and Kenji Hakuta. 1994. In Other
Words: The Science and Psychology
of Second Language Acquisition. New York: Basic Books.
Genesee, Fred. 1987. Learning through Two
Languages: Studies of Immersion and Bilingual Education. Rowley, MA:
Newbury House.
Hakuta, Kenji. i986. The Mirror of Language: The
Debate on Bilingualism. New York: Basic Books.
Krashen, Stephen, R. Sarcella, and M. Long (eds.)
1982. Child-Adult Differences in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley,
MA: Newbury House
Zentella, Ana Celia. 1997. Growing up Bilingual:
Puerto Rican Children in New York. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
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